Here's a concise summary:
The discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896 led to a deeper understanding of the atom and the development of nuclear energy. Physicists like the Curies, Ernest Rutherford, and Enrico Fermi made significant contributions to the field. The discovery of nuclear fission by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 paved the way for the creation of the atomic bomb.
During World War II, the United States developed the first atomic bombs, which were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, leading to Japan's surrender. The Cold War saw a nuclear arms race between the US and the Soviet Union, with both sides developing hydrogen bombs and intercontinental missiles.
In the 1950s and 1960s, nuclear power plants were developed, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established to promote the safe and peaceful use of nuclear energy. However, nuclear accidents like Three Mile Island and Chernobyl raised concerns about safety.
In recent years, there have been efforts to reduce nuclear arsenals and prevent proliferation. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty was introduced, but its entry into force was delayed due to non-signatures and non-ratifications. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011 led to a re-evaluation of nuclear safety worldwide.
Today, nuclear power generates around 10% of the world's electricity, but the industry faces challenges like aging reactors, high construction costs, and the need for new technologies to reduce waste and improve safety. Research into nuclear fusion is ongoing, with the aim of developing a new type of power plant that produces electricity with minimal waste.
Here are the key facts extracted from the text:
1. In 1896, physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium leaves a trace on a photographic plate without any other light source.
2. Becquerel concluded that uranium naturally emits a ray, which he called "uranique" in French.
3. Physicists Pierre and Marie Curie discovered other elements that also naturally emit radiation.
4. The phenomenon was later called radioactivity.
5. Ernest Rutherford suggested that radioactivity is radiation that accompanies the disintegration of atoms.
6. In 1938, German chemists Hahn and Strassmann discovered nuclear fission.
7. Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovered that during nuclear fission, three neutrons are ejected, which can cause further fission.
8. Albert Einstein signed a letter addressed to President Roosevelt, informing him of recent nuclear discoveries and the possibility of creating a powerful bomb using uranium.
9. The United States invested in research and launched the Manhattan Project in collaboration with Canada and the United Kingdom.
10. The goal of the Manhattan Project was to create an atomic bomb.
11. On July 16, 1945, the first successful nuclear test took place in the desert of New Mexico.
12. The United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, one on Hiroshima and one on Nagasaki.
13. The two bombs caused about 200,000 civilian casualties.
14. Japan surrendered days after the bombings.
15. The USSR accelerated its own nuclear program after the United States demonstrated its power.
16. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was created under the aegis of the United Nations to ensure the safe and peaceful use of nuclear energy.
17. Nuclear power was used in medicine, notably in medical imaging and the treatment of certain cancers.
18. In 1973, the world experienced its first oil crisis, leading to an increase in the price of a barrel of oil.
19. France and Japan mainly relied on nuclear energy to ensure their energy supply.
20. The United States and Soviet Union agreed to limit the production of strategic weapons.
21. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was introduced, but did not enter into force due to a lack of signatures and ratifications.
22. India and Pakistan conducted a series of nuclear tests in 1998.
23. Abdul Qadeer Khan acknowledged having developed a clandestine network that provided Libya, Iran, and North Korea with plans and materials to create an atomic bomb.
24. North Korea declared that it had carried out its first nuclear test in 2006.
25. Iran announced that it had successfully enriched uranium in 2006.
26. Israel maintains ambiguity over its nuclear program.
27. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident occurred in 1986, releasing a highly radioactive cloud that contaminated a large part of the European continent.
28. The Three Mile Island nuclear power plant accident occurred in 1979, but the containment resisted and prevented radioactive leaks.
29. The Fukushima nuclear plant accident occurred in 2011, releasing a highly radioactive cloud that affected the northern hemisphere.
30. Germany announced a phasing out of nuclear power after the Fukushima accident.
31. The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons was voted by 122 countries at the UN in 2017.
32. Today, 34 countries have ratified the treaty.
33. There are 417 operating nuclear reactors worldwide, producing just over 10% of the world's electricity.
34. 46 reactors are under construction, including 10 in China.
35. Two-thirds of global reactors are older than 30 years, out of their originally planned lifespan of 40 years.
36. The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor is being carried out in France, aiming to study the possibility of building nuclear fusion power plants.